The fast-io Reference Manual

Table of Contents

The fast-io Reference Manual

This is the fast-io Reference Manual, version 1.0, generated automatically by Declt version 3.0 "Montgomery Scott" on Mon Dec 02 10:13:47 2019 GMT+0.

1 Introduction

fast-io

Now with static-vectors support!

(deftype octet '(unsigned-byte 8))
(deftype octet-vector '(simple-array octet (*)))

Fast-io is about improving performance to octet-vectors and octet streams (though primarily the former, while wrapping the latter). Imagine we're creating messages for the network. If we try and fill an octet-vector with 50 bytes, 50000 times, here are the results (SBCL 1.0.57):

(See t/benchmarks.lisp for the exact code used.)

It should be surprising that it takes a nontrivial effort to achieve relatively decent performance to octet-vectors, but probably isn't. However, fast-io provides a relatively straightforward interface for reading and writing either a stream or a vector:

;;; Write a byte or sequence, optionally to a stream:

(with-fast-output (buffer [STREAM | :vector | :static])
  (fast-write-byte BYTE buffer))

(with-fast-output (buffer [STREAM | :vector | :static])
  (fast-write-sequence OCTET-VECTOR buffer [START [END]]))

;;; Read from a vector or stream:

(with-fast-input (buffer VECTOR [STREAM])
  (fast-read-byte buffer))

(with-fast-input (buffer VECTOR [STREAM])
  (let ((vec (make-octet-vector N)))
    (fast-read-sequence vec buffer [START [END]])))

Multi-byte and Endianness

Fast-io provides a host of read and write functions for big- and little-endian reads. See the Dictionary below.

Static Vectors

You may now specify :static instead of a stream to WITH-OUTPUT-BUFFER. This returns an octet-vector created with static-vectors, which means that passing the buffered data directly to a foreign function is now that much more efficient:

(let ((data (with-fast-output (buffer :static)
              (buffer-some-data buffer))))
  (foreign-send (static-vectors:static-vector-pointer data))
  (static-vectors:free-static-vector data))

Note that the restriction for manually freeing the result remains. This avoids multiple inefficient (i.e., byte-by-byte) copies to foreign memory.

Streams

Obviously, the above API isn't built around Lisp streams, or even gray-streams. However, fast-io provides a small wrapper using trivial-gray-streams, and supports {WRITE,READ}-SEQUENCE:

(let ((stream (make-instance 'fast-io:fast-output-stream)))
  (write-sequence (fast-io:octets-from '(1 2 3 4)) stream))

Both fast-input-stream and fast-output-stream support backing a stream, much like using the plain fast-io buffers. However, using the gray-streams interface is a 3-4x as slow as using the buffers alone. Simple benchmarks show the gray-streams interface writing 1M 50-byte vectors in about 1.7s, whereas simply using buffers is about 0.8s. Consing remains similar between the two.

Dictionary

Octets

Most functions operate on or require octet-vectors, i.e.,

(deftype octet () '(unsigned-byte 8))
(deftype octet-vector '(simple-array octet (*)))

Which is exactly what is defined and exported from fast-io. Also:

• make-octet-vector LEN Make an octet-vector of length LEN.
• octets-from SEQUENCE Make an octet-vector from the contents of SEQUENCE.

Buffers

• make-input-buffer &key VECTOR STREAM POS Create an input buffer for use with input functions. :vector specifies the vector to be read from. :stream specifies the stream to read from. :pos specifies the offset to start reading into VECTOR.

• make-output-buffer &key OUTPUT Create an output buffer for use with output functions. :output specifies an output stream. If :output :static is specified, and static-vectors is supported, output will be to a static-vector.

• finish-output-buffer BUFFER Finish the output and return the complete octet-vector.

• buffer-position BUFFER Return the current read/write position for BUFFER.

• with-fast-input (BUFFER VECTOR &optional STREAM (OFFSET 0)) &body body Create an input buffer called BUFFER, optionally reading from VECTOR, followed by reading from STREAM. If OFFSET is specified, start reading from this position in VECTOR.

• with-fast-output (BUFFER &optional OUTPUT) &body BODY Create an output buffer named BUFFER, optionally writing to the stream OUTPUT. This will automatically FINISH-OUTPUT-BUFFER on BUFFER. Thus the with-fast-output form evaluates to the completed octet-vector.

Reading and Writing

• fast-read-byte INPUT-BUFFER &optional (EOF-ERROR-P t) EOF-VALUE Read a byte from INPUT-BUFFER. If EOF-ERROR-P is t, reading past the end-of-file will signal CL:END-OF-FILE. Otherwise, it will return EOF-VALUE instead.
• fast-write-byte BYTE OUTPUT-BUFFER Write a byte to OUTPUT-BUFFER.
• fast-read-sequence SEQUENCE INPUT-BUFFER &optional (START 0) END Read from INPUT-BUFFER into SEQUENCE. Values will be written starting at position START and, if END is specified, ending at END. Otherwise values will be written until the length of the sequence, or until the input is exhausted.
• fast-write-sequence SEQUENCE OUTPUT-BUFFER &optional (START 0) END Write SEQUENCE to OUTPUT-BUFFER, starting at position START in SEQUENCE. If END is specified, values will be written until END; otherwise, values will be written for the length of the sequence.

For multi-byte reads and writes requiring endianness, fast-io provides functions in the following forms:

• write[u]{8,16,32,64,128}{-be,-le}: E.g., (write32-be VALUE BUFFER) will write the specified 32-bit value to the specified buffer with a big-endian layout. Likewise, (writeu16-le VALUE BUFFER) will write an unsigned 16-bit value in little-endian layout.
• read[u]{8,16,32,64,128}{-be,-le}: Similarly, (read64-le BUFFER) will read a 64-bit value from the buffer with little-endian layout.

2 Systems

The main system appears first, followed by any subsystem dependency.

2.1 fast-io

Author

Ryan Pavlik

License

NewBSD

Description

Alternative I/O mechanism to a stream or vector

Version

1.0

Dependencies

• alexandria
• trivial-gray-streams
• static-vectors

Source

fast-io.asd (file)

Components

• package.lisp (file)
• types.lisp (file)
• io.lisp (file)
• gray.lisp (file)

3 Files

Files are sorted by type and then listed depth-first from the systems components trees.

3.1 Lisp

3.1.1 fast-io.asd

Location

/home/quickref/quicklisp/dists/quicklisp/software/fast-io-20171023-git/fast-io.asd

Systems

fast-io (system)

3.1.2 fast-io/package.lisp

Parent

fast-io (system)

Location

package.lisp

Packages

fast-io

3.1.3 fast-io/types.lisp

Dependency

package.lisp (file)

Parent

fast-io (system)

Location

types.lisp

Exported Definitions

• index (type)
• octet (type)
• octet-vector (type)

3.1.4 fast-io/io.lisp

Dependency

types.lisp (file)

Parent

fast-io (system)

Location

io.lisp

Exported Definitions

• *default-output-buffer-size* (special variable)
• buffer-position (function)
• fast-read-byte (function)
• fast-read-sequence (function)
• fast-write-byte (function)
• fast-write-sequence (function)
• finish-output-buffer (function)
• input-buffer (structure)
• input-buffer-stream (function)
• (setf input-buffer-stream) (function)
• input-buffer-vector (function)
• (setf input-buffer-vector) (function)
• make-input-buffer (function)
• make-octet-vector (function)
• make-output-buffer (function)
• octets-from (function)
• output-buffer (structure)
• read128-be (function)
• read128-le (function)
• read16-be (function)
• read16-le (function)
• read32-be (function)
• read32-le (function)
• read64-be (function)
• read64-le (function)
• read8 (function)
• read8-be (function)
• read8-le (function)
• readu128-be (function)
• readu128-le (function)
• readu16-be (function)
• readu16-le (function)
• readu32-be (function)
• readu32-le (function)
• readu64-be (function)
• readu64-le (function)
• readu8 (function)
• readu8-be (function)
• readu8-le (function)
• with-fast-input (macro)
• with-fast-output (macro)
• write128-be (function)
• write128-le (function)
• write16-be (function)
• write16-le (function)
• write24-be (function)
• write24-le (function)
• write32-be (function)
• write32-le (function)
• write64-be (function)
• write64-le (function)
• write8 (function)
• write8-be (function)
• write8-le (function)
• writeu128-be (function)
• writeu128-le (function)
• writeu16-be (function)
• writeu16-le (function)
• writeu24-be (function)
• writeu24-le (function)
• writeu32-be (function)
• writeu32-le (function)
• writeu64-be (function)
• writeu64-le (function)
• writeu8 (function)
• writeu8-be (function)
• writeu8-le (function)

Internal Definitions

• concat-buffer (function)
• copy-input-buffer (function)
• copy-output-buffer (function)
• extend (function)
• flush (function)
• input-buffer-p (function)
• input-buffer-pos (function)
• (setf input-buffer-pos) (function)
• make-readers (macro)
• make-writers (macro)
• output-buffer-fill (function)
• (setf output-buffer-fill) (function)
• output-buffer-last (function)
• (setf output-buffer-last) (function)
• output-buffer-len (function)
• (setf output-buffer-len) (function)
• output-buffer-output (function)
• (setf output-buffer-output) (function)
• output-buffer-p (function)
• output-buffer-queue (function)
• (setf output-buffer-queue) (function)
• output-buffer-vector (function)
• (setf output-buffer-vector) (function)
• read-unsigned-be (macro)
• read-unsigned-le (macro)
• read24-be (function)
• read24-le (function)
• readu24-be (function)
• readu24-le (function)
• signed-to-unsigned (function)
• unsigned-to-signed (function)
• write-unsigned-be (macro)
• write-unsigned-le (macro)

3.1.5 fast-io/gray.lisp

Dependency

io.lisp (file)

Parent

fast-io (system)

Location

gray.lisp

Exported Definitions

• fast-input-stream (class)
• fast-output-stream (class)
• finish-output-stream (function)

4 Packages

Packages are listed by definition order.

4.1 fast-io

Source

package.lisp (file)

Use List

• trivial-gray-streams
• alexandria.1.0.0
• common-lisp

Exported Definitions

• *default-output-buffer-size* (special variable)
• buffer-position (function)
• fast-input-stream (class)
• fast-output-stream (class)
• fast-read-byte (function)
• fast-read-sequence (function)
• fast-write-byte (function)
• fast-write-sequence (function)
• finish-output-buffer (function)
• finish-output-stream (function)
• index (type)
• input-buffer (structure)
• input-buffer-stream (function)
• (setf input-buffer-stream) (function)
• input-buffer-vector (function)
• (setf input-buffer-vector) (function)
• make-input-buffer (function)
• make-octet-vector (function)
• make-output-buffer (function)
• octet (type)
• octet-vector (type)
• octets-from (function)
• output-buffer (structure)
• read128-be (function)
• read128-le (function)
• read16-be (function)
• read16-le (function)
• read32-be (function)
• read32-le (function)
• read64-be (function)
• read64-le (function)
• read8 (function)
• read8-be (function)
• read8-le (function)
• readu128-be (function)
• readu128-le (function)
• readu16-be (function)
• readu16-le (function)
• readu32-be (function)
• readu32-le (function)
• readu64-be (function)
• readu64-le (function)
• readu8 (function)
• readu8-be (function)
• readu8-le (function)
• with-fast-input (macro)
• with-fast-output (macro)
• write128-be (function)
• write128-le (function)
• write16-be (function)
• write16-le (function)
• write24-be (function)
• write24-le (function)
• write32-be (function)
• write32-le (function)
• write64-be (function)
• write64-le (function)
• write8 (function)
• write8-be (function)
• write8-le (function)
• writeu128-be (function)
• writeu128-le (function)
• writeu16-be (function)
• writeu16-le (function)
• writeu24-be (function)
• writeu24-le (function)
• writeu32-be (function)
• writeu32-le (function)
• writeu64-be (function)
• writeu64-le (function)
• writeu8 (function)
• writeu8-be (function)
• writeu8-le (function)

Internal Definitions

• concat-buffer (function)
• copy-input-buffer (function)
• copy-output-buffer (function)
• extend (function)
• flush (function)
• input-buffer-p (function)
• input-buffer-pos (function)
• (setf input-buffer-pos) (function)
• make-readers (macro)
• make-writers (macro)
• output-buffer-fill (function)
• (setf output-buffer-fill) (function)
• output-buffer-last (function)
• (setf output-buffer-last) (function)
• output-buffer-len (function)
• (setf output-buffer-len) (function)
• output-buffer-output (function)
• (setf output-buffer-output) (function)
• output-buffer-p (function)
• output-buffer-queue (function)
• (setf output-buffer-queue) (function)
• output-buffer-vector (function)
• (setf output-buffer-vector) (function)
• read-unsigned-be (macro)
• read-unsigned-le (macro)
• read24-be (function)
• read24-le (function)
• readu24-be (function)
• readu24-le (function)
• signed-to-unsigned (function)
• unsigned-to-signed (function)
• write-unsigned-be (macro)
• write-unsigned-le (macro)

5 Definitions

Definitions are sorted by export status, category, package, and then by lexicographic order.

5.1 Exported definitions

5.1.1 Special variables

Special Variable: *default-output-buffer-size*

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

5.1.2 Macros

Macro: with-fast-input (BUFFER VECTOR &optional STREAM OFFSET) &body BODY

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Macro: with-fast-output (BUFFER &optional OUTPUT) &body BODY

Create ‘BUFFER‘, optionally outputting to ‘OUTPUT‘.

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

5.1.3 Functions

Function: buffer-position BUFFER

Return the number of bytes read (for an INPUT-BUFFER) or written (for an OUTPUT-BUFFER)

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: fast-read-byte INPUT-BUFFER &optional EOF-ERROR-P EOF-VALUE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: fast-read-sequence SEQUENCE INPUT-BUFFER &optional START END

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: fast-write-byte BYTE OUTPUT-BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: fast-write-sequence SEQUENCE OUTPUT-BUFFER &optional START END

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: finish-output-buffer OUTPUT-BUFFER

Finish an output buffer. If it is backed by a vector (static or otherwise) it returns the final octet vector. If it is backed by a stream it ensures that all data has been flushed to the stream.

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: finish-output-stream STREAM

Package

fast-io

Source

gray.lisp (file)

Function: input-buffer-stream INSTANCE

Function: (setf input-buffer-stream) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: input-buffer-vector INSTANCE

Function: (setf input-buffer-vector) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: make-input-buffer &key (VECTOR VECTOR) (POS POS) (STREAM STREAM)

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: make-octet-vector LEN

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: make-output-buffer &key (VECTOR VECTOR) (FILL FILL) (LEN LEN) (QUEUE QUEUE) (LAST LAST) (OUTPUT OUTPUT)

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: octets-from SEQUENCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read128-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read128-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read16-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read16-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read32-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read32-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read64-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read64-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read8 BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read8-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read8-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu128-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu128-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu16-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu16-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu32-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu32-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu64-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu64-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu8 BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu8-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu8-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write128-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write128-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write16-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write16-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write24-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write24-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write32-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write32-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write64-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write64-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write8 VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write8-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: write8-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu128-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu128-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu16-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu16-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu24-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu24-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu32-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu32-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu64-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu64-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu8 VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu8-be VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: writeu8-le VALUE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

5.1.4 Structures

Structure: input-buffer ()

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Direct superclasses

structure-object (structure)

Direct slots

Slot: vector

Type

(or null fast-io:octet-vector)

Readers

input-buffer-vector (function)

Writers

(setf input-buffer-vector) (function)

Slot: pos

Type

fast-io:index

Initform

0

Readers

input-buffer-pos (function)

Writers

(setf input-buffer-pos) (function)

Slot: stream

Readers

input-buffer-stream (function)

Writers

(setf input-buffer-stream) (function)

Structure: output-buffer ()

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Direct superclasses

structure-object (structure)

Direct slots

Slot: vector

Type

fast-io:octet-vector

Initform

(fast-io:make-octet-vector fast-io:*default-output-buffer-size*)

Readers

output-buffer-vector (function)

Writers

(setf output-buffer-vector) (function)

Slot: fill

Type

fast-io:index

Initform

0

Readers

output-buffer-fill (function)

Writers

(setf output-buffer-fill) (function)

Slot: len

Type

fast-io:index

Initform

0

Readers

output-buffer-len (function)

Writers

(setf output-buffer-len) (function)

Slot: queue

Type

list

Readers

output-buffer-queue (function)

Writers

(setf output-buffer-queue) (function)

Slot: last

Type

list

Readers

output-buffer-last (function)

Writers

(setf output-buffer-last) (function)

Slot: output

Readers

output-buffer-output (function)

Writers

(setf output-buffer-output) (function)

5.1.5 Classes

Class: fast-input-stream ()

Package

fast-io

Source

gray.lisp (file)

Direct superclasses

fundamental-input-stream (class)

Direct methods

• stream-read-sequence (method)
• initialize-instance (method)

Direct slots

Slot: buffer

Type

fast-io:input-buffer

Class: fast-output-stream ()

Package

fast-io

Source

gray.lisp (file)

Direct superclasses

fundamental-output-stream (class)

Direct methods

• stream-write-sequence (method)
• stream-write-byte (method)
• initialize-instance (method)

Direct slots

Slot: buffer

Type

fast-io:output-buffer

5.1.6 Types

Type: index ()

Package

fast-io

Source

types.lisp (file)

Type: octet ()

Package

fast-io

Source

types.lisp (file)

Type: octet-vector ()

Package

fast-io

Source

types.lisp (file)

5.2 Internal definitions

5.2.1 Macros

Macro: make-readers &rest BITLENS

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Macro: make-writers &rest BITLENS

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Macro: read-unsigned-be SIZE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Macro: read-unsigned-le SIZE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Macro: write-unsigned-be VALUE SIZE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Macro: write-unsigned-le VALUE SIZE BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

5.2.2 Functions

Function: concat-buffer BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: copy-input-buffer INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: copy-output-buffer INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: extend BUFFER &optional MIN

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: flush OUTPUT-BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: input-buffer-p OBJECT

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: input-buffer-pos INSTANCE

Function: (setf input-buffer-pos) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: output-buffer-fill INSTANCE

Function: (setf output-buffer-fill) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: output-buffer-last INSTANCE

Function: (setf output-buffer-last) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: output-buffer-len INSTANCE

Function: (setf output-buffer-len) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: output-buffer-output INSTANCE

Function: (setf output-buffer-output) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: output-buffer-p OBJECT

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: output-buffer-queue INSTANCE

Function: (setf output-buffer-queue) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: output-buffer-vector INSTANCE

Function: (setf output-buffer-vector) VALUE INSTANCE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read24-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: read24-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu24-be BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: readu24-le BUFFER

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: signed-to-unsigned VALUE SIZE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Function: unsigned-to-signed VALUE SIZE

Package

fast-io

Source

io.lisp (file)

Appendix A Indexes

A.1 Concepts

A.2 Functions

A.3 Variables

A.4 Data types